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281 - Powder Metallurgy Application to Heat Transfer and Fluid Dynamics in Liquid Cooled Heatsinks
Virgiliu Savu, GKN Sinter Metals

Heatsinks are used in liquid cooled systems for applications such as packaged semiconductor devices used in power electronics applications, inverters, converters and more. Generally, liquid cooled systems contain heatsinks used to conduct thermal energy away from a component and transfer it to a liquid such as water or water-glycol. These systems are preferred for their reduced thermal resistance, improved efficiency, compact design and better temperature control than air cooled systems. Powder metallurgy materials and manufacturing technologies are well positioned to producing ranges of thermofluidic preformat heatsinks for such systems. Using predominantly the computational fluid dynamics tool, this work explores design considerations such as geometry, flow distribution, enhanced forced convection and pressure drop when selecting powder metallurgy to design and produce optimized heatsinks.

289 - Computational Design and Experimental Validation of Fracture Toughness and Tribological Performance of SPS-Fabricated SiC/cBN-Reinforced Alumina Composites
Syed Sohail Akhtar, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Alumina ceramics are promising candidates for cutting tool applications; however, their inherent brittleness and limited fracture toughness restrict their wear performance under dry machining conditions. In this study, a computational materials design approach is employed to develop SiC- and cBN-reinforced alumina composites with a balanced combination of toughness and wear resistance. Mean-field homogenization and fracture-mechanics-based models are used to predict elastic and fracture properties, highlighting the strong toughening potential of cBN when combined with SiC in appropriate proportions. Based on these predictions, SiC/Alumina, /cBN/Alumina, and hybrid SiC/cBN-reinforced Alumina composites are fabricated using spark plasma sintering (SPS). The fracture toughness of the sintered composites is measured experimentally to validate the model predictions. Microstructural and phase analyses are performed using FESEM, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy. Dry sliding wear tests demonstrate that optimized SiC–cBN combinations significantly enhance wear resistance while maintaining improved fracture toughness, confirming their suitability for cutting tool applications.

285 - PM-HIP Benchmarking Analysis of Abaqus UMAT Subroutine Using 316L Stainless Steel Large Nozzle
Katelyn Nelson, Naval Nuclear Laboratory

Multiple factors contribute to non-uniformity of shrinkage during the Powder Metallurgy – Hot Isostatic Pressing (PM-HIP) process. Accurate PM-HIP modeling tools can reduce or eliminate the need for costly and time-consuming trial and error iterations of a canister design to achieve near-net shape components. To date, most modeling tools have been benchmarked against lab-scale parts. This study discusses NNL’s efforts to evaluate the accuracy of a constitutive model previously presented in literature and implemented in an Abaqus User Material subroutine to simulate consolidation of a large 316L Stainless Steel part. This study leverages manufacturing data, including pre-HIP laser scans of the as-built canister and HIP cycle data, to create an accurate finite element model of the part. This study documents the variation between the post-HIP laser scans of the part and the predicted shape, drawing conclusions about modeling accuracy at large scale.

031 - Effect of Supersolidus Liquid Phase Sintering Conditions on the Bonding of Particles, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties of AlSi10Mg Alloy
Mohamed Trigui, École de Technologie Supérieure

This study investigates the effect of supersolidus liquid phase sintering conditions on AlSi10Mg powder bonding, microstructure formation, and the resulting mechanical properties of the samples. Sintering was conducted in the 550-579°C range with a holding duration of 2h. The sintering included heating (varied between 5 or 15h) and cooling (varied between 12 or 70h). All thermal cycles—heating, cooling, and sintering dwell—were performed under a nitrogen atmosphere.

The result indicates that higher sintering temperatures and faster heating/cooling rates lead to a lower fraction of AlN. In contrast, lower sintering temperatures or slow heating promoted the development of a thicker AlN shell around the powder particles. This shell inhibited the bonding of the powder and prevented densification via the sintering process. Sintering in 571-579°C range, with heating during 5h, constitutes a more favorable window for the densification of AlSi10Mg under a nitrogen atmosphere.

At 571 °C, the alloy exhibits fine Al grains and small Si particles uniformly distributed within the Al matrix, resulting in high hardness. At 575 °C, grain coarsening and partial coalescence of Si particles occur, leading to a reduction in hardness. At 579 °C, grains become larger, while Si evolves into elongated structures that surround the Al grains, improving overall hardness. After T6 heat treatment, Si particles and Al grain structure remain stable; however, the hardness nearly doubles due to precipitation strengthening.

240 - A Double Sand-Sealed Electric Kiln with Inconel-Sheet Fabricated Retort for Production of Reaction-Sintered and Nitride-Bonded High-Strength Silicon Carbide Parts
Ravindra Kumar Malhotra, Malhotra Engineers

A double sand-sealed 21 kW kiln with a fully welded Inconel-sheet fabricated retort has been designed for 1250 C temperature. The three cubic feet (retort volume) kiln under construction is for trials of reaction-sintering processes, especially nitride-bonded high-strength silicon carbide parts. Nitrogen gas is needed above 1200 C for silicon-nitride formation from silicon powder to be use as bond for silicon carbide molded, compacted or vibration cast parts being sintered. Nitrogen or any other process gas is released inside the retort base itself. A ceramic monolithic precast block with well distributed holes has been engineered to cover the entire charge area. Uniformly spent gas and binder vapors are led out of the retort using a vent pipe of suitable height and diameter to increase dwell time of heated reaction gas inside the retort. This gas dwell  penetrates the green compacts to complete the nitriding reaction without any air ingress from any part of the kiln. The outer surface of the circular retort is electrically heated uniformly as per the desired ramping cycle selected in the kiln monitoring system. The start and end of process reaction gas flow is interlocked as per the gas reaction time needed. Suitable kiln furniture is designed for the parts to be sintered. Green parts can be powder compacted, slip cast or 3-D printed. Even a single large 3-D printed part can be reaction-sintered. The retort can be removed to increase kiln volume for non critical work using single sand-seal of the kiln body. The electric terminals of the kiln are kept gas tight using suitable gland packing technique. 

167 - Unveiling the Sintering Process of Blended Elemental Powder Metallurgy Titanium Alloys from Dual Perspectives of Microstructure and Pore Architecture
Kejia Pan, Northwest Institute for Nonferrous Metal Research

The sintering of blended elemental Ti alloys couples microstructural homogenization with pore evolution; elemental diffusion governs both. Ti + 50Al25Nb17Zr8Mo compacts were sintered 800–1300 °C and tracked by multi-scale microscopy. Densification and homogenization accelerate once the ?-field is entered; the interconnected pore network closes between 1000–1200 °C, setting the vital window for impurity out-gassing. Al diffuses fastest, followed by Zr, Nb and Mo; this sequence can nucleate Kirkendall voids inside coarse master-alloy particles. Reducing master-alloy size to <30 µm eliminates these voids, yields uniform chemistry and delivers a superior strength-ductility balance, whereas coarse particles leave irregular pores that act as stress concentrators. A diffusion-centric model unifies the observations and provides practical guidelines for processing high-performance BEPM titanium.

115 - Enhancing Sustainability and Powder Lifecycle in Powder Bed Fusion – Laser Beam: Reuse and Re-Atomization of AlSi10Mg
Sofia Kazi, Chalmers Tekniska Hogskol

Additive manufacturing (AM), particularly powder bed fusion-laser beam (PBF-LB), enables precise fabrication of complex metal components with high material efficiency and sustainability through powder reuse. However, repeated reuse of powder leads to degradation mainly caused by the accumulation of spatter particles. AlSi10Mg is a widely used aluminum alloy in additive manufacturing due to its excellent combination of lightweight, high strength, good thermal conductivity, and corrosion resistance. The reuse of AlSi10Mg powder in PBF-LB significantly affects powder quality and part performance. Repeated reuse leads to increased surface oxidation and accumulation of highly oxidized spatter particles, which contribute to higher porosity in printed parts. The recycling of AM scrap and degraded powders via re-atomization offers a viable solution to restore powder usability. This study explores the impact of powder reuse on the properties of AlSi10Mg, as well as the potential re-atomization of AM scrap. Results indicate that powders regain improved surface chemistry and flowability comparable to virgin powder. This approach enhances material sustainability and reduces production costs. Overall, re-atomization strategies are crucial for advancing resource-efficient, cost-effective, and high-quality AlSi10Mg production in PBF-LB processing.

103 - Degradation, Re-use and Recycling of Metal Powder in PBF-LB
Eduard Hryha, Chalmers Tekniska Hogskol

Powder degradation in PBF-LB is strongly related to the spatter formation and its accumulation in the reused powder. Spatter formation on the other hand is strongly related to the alloy composition, component geometry, process parameters and processing gas quality. Hence, powder degradation is rather complex, and powder disqualification is typically determined by bulk oxygen content, that is not always representing real state of powder degradation as powder is continuously mixed with fresh virgin powder to keep bulk oxygen content below the requirements. Hence, understanding the change in powder properties during AM processing and its’ impact on final properties of the component is required to ensure successful industrial implementation of powder-based metal AM.

Paper provides an overview of powder degradation during PBF-LB processing in dependance on alloy composition and PBF-LB processing, including impact of process gas. Impact of powder degradation on powder reuse and potential of further powder recycling – namely, reatomisation of disqualified powder and AM process waste into AM powder, is exploited. Reatomisation trials were performed for number of stainless steel, aluminum and Ni-base alloys in argon and nitrogen gas, when feasible. Reatomisation/recycling enabled to obtain powder with chemical and physical properties as good or even better than virgin powder. PBF-LB processing of recycled powder showed excellent powder printability and mechanical properties showed significant improvement in comparison to the reused powder.

156 - A Novel Powder Recycling Route for Additive Manufacturing: From Used Metal Powders to New and Composite Feedstock via Vacuum Sintering and EIGA process
Ivan Lorenzon, Pometon SpA

Recycling metal powders, particularly reactive metals such as titanium and its alloys, remains one of the most pressing and challenging issues in additive manufacturing. Traditional recovery methods are technically demanding, expensive, and often lead to oxidation, making the reuse of powders impractical at industrial scale. This work introduces an innovative route to transform used or oversized metal powders into high-quality feedstock suitable for additive manufacturing. The process relies on vacuum induction sintering to consolidate reactive powders into dense electrodes, which are subsequently converted into spherical powders through Electrode Induction Gas Atomization (EIGA). This method preserves alloy integrity, minimizes oxidation, and enables the production of both renewed metal powders and metal–matrix composite powders by incorporating inorganic reinforcements, resulting in homogeneous feedstock without phase segregation. By providing a cost-effective and scalable approach to recycle and functionalize metal powders, this technology addresses critical limitations in powder reuse, promotes circular material flows, and opens new possibilities for the production of advanced composite materials for additive manufacturing.

011- Comprehensive Rheological Characterization of Metallic Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing Feedstocks for Improved Printability Assessment
Gabriel Marcil-St-Onge, École de Technologie Supérieure

Additive manufacturing of metallic components via Material Extrusion (MEX) involves the preparation of a feedstock composed of a metallic powder and a polymer-based binder, which is extruded layer by layer to form a green part, subsequently debound and sintered to achieve the desired mechanical properties. Understanding the rheological behavior of feedstocks, dependent on both the powder characteristics and the binder composition, is essential for ensuring stable and defect-free green parts after printing. Typically exhibiting shear thinning behavior, MEX feedstocks experience a wide range of shear conditions during the extrusion and deposition operations, leading to significant variations in apparent viscosity throughout the process. In this study, the shear conditions encountered during printing were quantified and compared with those applied in conventional rheological tests across an extensive range of shear rates. Several rheological models were fitted to the experimental data and compared to evaluate their ability to accurately describe feedstock behavior and predict printability. Finally, the corresponding rheological requirements for MEX feedstocks were then analyzed to identify the most relevant testing approaches for assessing printability.

032 - Effect of Powder and Feedstock Characteristics on Printability in Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Components
Hachem Zammali, École de Technologie Supérieure

Among additive manufacturing technologies, material extrusion (MEX) offers a simple and low-cost alternative to produce metallic components in aerospace, automotive and other high-performance sectors. To that end, metallic powder is mixed with a molten state polymeric binder to form a feedstock, which is extruded layer-by-layer to form a green part. This part is then debound to remove the organic binder and sintered to produce a dense metallic component. However, the printability of such highly filled feedstocks remains difficult and challenging due to extrusion instability, poor layer adhesion, and shape distortion that are influenced by granulometric properties of powders and binder systems. This work aims to study the influence of powder size distribution, dry powder rheology, and melt feedstock rheology on feedstock printability via MEX and overall printed part quality. The expected outcome is to optimize feedstock formulation and establish a process window for powders and feedstock properties that enable stable MEX printing to produce high-quality components.

051 - Automated Parameter Optimization for Pore-Free Green Parts in Piston-Based Material Extrusion
Lennard Hermans, Fraunhofer IAPT

The integration of Piston-based Material Extrusion (pMEX) into Metal and Ceramic Injection Molding (MIM/CIM) process chains provides a promising pathway to reduce manufacturing costs and increase flexibility in small-series and prototype production. In this process, standard MIM/CIM feedstock is directly utilized and processed through a piston-driven extrusion system, in which the material is vacuum-loaded, heated, compacted, and extruded analogously to the fused filament fabrication (FFF) process. A central challenge arises from the initially unknown piston force and the corresponding uncertainty in the extrusion flow rate at the onset of material discharge. Without active calibration, the system requires an extended period to reach equilibrium between piston movement and extrusion flow rate after feedstock loading, as the piston operates at very low speed during printing. To overcome this limitation, software for automated in situ calibration of the extrusion flow rate was developed. Subsequently, the extrusion temperature is automatically adjusted to ensure sufficient feedstock flowability and optimal inter-strand bonding. This paper presents a validated workflow that demonstrates a direct correlation between extrusion temperature and green part density, which serves as a critical indicator of part quality. High green part density minimizes anisotropic shrinkage, distortion, and inferior mechanical properties in the final part after sintering.

121 - Spark Plasma Sintering of Nickel Bonded High Entropy Carbides
Mahlatse Rabothata, University of Witwatersrand

The development of mechanically robust and wear-resistant materials has become a key research focus, aimed at improving durability, efficiency and reliability of engineering components operating under demanding conditions. In this study, the wear performance of Ni-bonded high entropy carbides (HECs) prepared by spark plasma sintering (SPS) was systematically investigated. For this purpose, HEC-12Ni (wt.%) powder composites containing TiC, Mo2C, TaC, NbC, Cr3C2 were synthesised, fabricated and characterised to evaluate their microstructural and mechanical properties. Sliding wear behaviour was assessed using pin-on-disk tribometry under dry conditions. Samples sintered at 1300 oC under 30 MPa exhibited a fine-grained microstructure, which contributed to a combination of high hardness (HV30 = 14.96 GPa) and fracture toughness (KIC = 7.53 MPa. m1/2), as well as the lowest coefficient of friction of 0.210. These results demonstrate that the SPS-produced Ni-bonded HECs possess an optimal balance of hardness and toughness, resulting in enhanced wear resistance. These findings provide valuable insights into the structure–property relationships of high entropy carbides and underscore their potential as next-generation wear-resistant materials for various engineering applications, where durability and efficiency are critical. This study highlights the promise of tailored HEC composites for improving the performance and lifespan of mechanical systems subjected to high-stress contact conditions. 

120 - Development of a Novel High Entropy Alloy for the Fabrication of WC-HEA Cemented Carbides
William Bouchard, Laval University

Modern technological industries increasingly demand advanced materials capable of maintaining structural integrity and dimensional precision under extreme conditions. However, machining of those advanced materials, such as high nickel alloys, is inherently difficult given their high mechanical properties. Conventional cemented carbide cutting tools have become inadequate for such applications due to the suboptimal mechanical and high temperature strength properties imparted by the cobalt (Co) binder phase. High-entropy alloys (HEAs) have emerged as a promising alternative to Co-based binders, owing to their exceptional microstructure stability at elevated temperatures, resistance to oxidation, and tunable mechanical properties. The mechanical behavior of HEAs can be tailored through the control of their crystalline structures: body-centered cubic (BCC) configurations typically provide superior yield and tensile strength, whereas face-centered cubic (FCC) structures enhance ductility and elongation. Accordingly, a novel high-entropy alloy was designed through thermodynamic simulations with the specific objective of achieving a dual-phase microstructure that integrates both BCC and FCC lattices while minimizing the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds. The high entropy alloy was subsequently produced by ultrasonic atomisation and consolidated. Its densification behaviour, along with its microstructural evolution, mechanical properties, and tribological properties were investigated to evaluate its potential as a new binder for the manufacturing of WC cemented carbides. 

067 - Influence of the High Entropy Carbide Formation Route on Microstructure and Properties of HEC-Ni-Based Cemented Carbides 
Johannes Pötschke, Fraunhofer IKTS

Currently, WC–Co cemented carbides dominate tooling applications, but concerns about tungsten (W) supply security and ethical sourcing drive interest in W-lean alternatives. High-entropy carbides (HEC) offer high hardness comparable to or exceeding that of single carbides (e.g., WC, TiC, Cr3C2), yet HEC powders are not yet widely available, and robust manufacturing routes remain to be developed. This study evaluates the preparation of HEC-based cemented carbides using two compositions containing five or six transition metal elements (Ti,V,Nb,Ta,W) and (Ti,V,Nb,Ta,Mo,W), respectively. Two different HEC formation routes were investigated: (i) in situ HEC formation during reaction sintering from blends of individual carbide and metallic binder powders, and (ii) processing with pre-synthesized HEC powders. Ni-based binders are employed to avoid Co while targeting adequate wetting and toughness.

For both compositions and both routes, compacts are produced, systematically characterized (phase constitution, microstructure, densification) and benchmarked against conventional WC–Co cemented carbides. Key comparisons include HEC phase formation and single-phase character, grain growth control, binder distribution, porosity, and resulting hardness; the implications for reducing W content are assessed.

111 - A History of Liquid Phase Sintering of Tungsten Heavy Alloys in Microgravity
John Johnson, FAPMI, Novamet/Ultra Fine Specialty Products

Liquid phase sintering under reduced gravity conditions is significantly different than on Earth. Initial experiments with tungsten heavy alloys using parabolic trajectory rockets in the 1980s showed extensive grain agglomeration after microgravity sintering for less than a minute. Further investigation of the gravitational role in liquid phase sintering required longer sintering times available only through space flights. Experiments with tungsten heavy alloys conducted as part of Spacelab-J, IML-2, and MSL-1 on board Space Shuttle missions in the 1990s provided significant experimental data for comparison to model predictions. Many of the original hypotheses were proven to be incorrect. Analysis of the data from the microgravity experiments resulted in new models for densification, distortion, solid-liquid segregation, pore coarsening, and grain growth. Experiments on board the International Space Station provided additional data for testing these theories. The development of these models is reviewed and areas for future research are outlined. 

260 - Towards the Production of Bulk Nanostructured Ductile Tungsten
Dekota Thies

Tungsten, molybdenum and similar refractory metals are desirable for many high temperature structural applications where corrosion and creep are primary concerns. However, these metals have unusually low ductility and fracture in a brittle nature even at very high temperatures, significantly limiting their use. Several methods have been explored to increase low temperature ductility and high temperature creep resistance including alloys and cold working, but new methods are needed to improve the ductility and manufacture complex parts for applications like molten salt heat exchangers. This work focuses on the controlled densification of refractory metal nanopowders to manufacture bulk nanostructured parts in complex geometries with superior low temperature fracture resistance and strength. Densification is performed by Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) metal powders within a glass can. Additional canning methods are planned by the time of the conference. One major innovation that has been tested is the reduction of surface oxides on highly active nanoparticle surfaces by hydrogen hot hydrogen treatment in a semi-fluidized bed. This approach prevents particulate ripening while significantly reducing the oxide content allowing for improved densification and mechanical properties compared to oxidized powders. Carbothermic reduction followed by hydrogen reduction is also being tested, with results pending analysis.

109 - The Effect of Rhenium on the Deformation Behavior of Molybdenum Single Crystals
Benqi Jiao, Northwest Institute for Nonferrous Metal Research

The "Re effect" significantly improves the strength-plasticity of molybdenum, but the mechanism of this effect has long been a subject of controversy. To avoid the influence of factors such as micro-defects, material purity, grain size, and material texture on the deformation process itself, this study selected high-purity Mo-Re alloy single crystals as the research object and used in-situ SEM-EBSD technology to analyze the initiation state of slip systems during the deformation process. The results show that the Re element causes a transition of the deformation mode of molybdenum single crystals from slip/twist bands to shear bands, and cooperatively activates multiple slip systems, thereby enhancing the plasticity of Mo-Re single crystals compared to pure molybdenum.

616 - Connecting Titanium to Human Bone
Colin McCracken, Oerlikon Metco (Canada) Inc.

Global demographics continue to show an increasing average population age over the next 25 years and increasing associated illnesses such as Osteoarthritis which damage human joints such as hips, knees, spine, and hands. In extreme cases surgery is the only option to alleviate patient pain and increase mobility. Titanium is extensively used in the medical orthopedic industry due to its high biocompatibility and osteointegration properties, where an implants become fused to bone. This talk will outline the manufacturing processes for non-cemented orthopedic devices like total hip and total knee replacement implants and focus on the application and key characteristics of the porous titanium coating used to promote osteointegration. Oerlikon is a global leader in providing the coating technologies and offer future developments to all the major orthopedic device OEM’s and contract manufacturing industry. Oerlikon has just released its long-awaited vacuum plasma cascaded arc thermal spray gun platform that further enhances this titanium coating technology and extends the current coating thickness and roughness capabilities. This new technology also offers additional manufacturing cost savings by the elimination of very expensive helium secondary gas requirements.

617 - Development of Fully and Functionally Graded Porous Titanium Alloy
Sebastien Germain Careau, Quebec Metallurgy Center (CMQ)

This study introduced an innovative powder metallurgy thermomechanical process designed to produce fully and functionally graded porous titanium alloy scaffolds with controlled pore structures and near-net shapes. The porous architecture of the scaffold was influenced by the total deformation and the specific types of hot deformation applied to the unconsolidated, enclosed powder. Two distinct thermomechanical processes, hot rolling and fully constrained hot forging, were employed to adjust the porosity volume fraction, which ranged from 9% to 31%, and to develop a functionally graded porous structure that takes advantage of the diechilling effect. The scaffold design in this study also aims to modify the mechanical properties, particularly the elastic modulus, to resemble those of human bones. The Ti-8Mo-2Fe alloy was selected for this research and produced through mechanical alloying. This specific Ti alloy containing low-toxicity elements was selected for this research because it combines favorable in vitro biological behaviors and  appropriate  mechanical properties for various biomedical applications. The performance characteristics of this newly developed alloy were then compared to those of the conventional Ti-6Al-4V alloy to assess its potential advantages and applications. The porous structure and microstructure characteristics were investigated using scanning electron microscopy, optical microscopy and computer-assisted image analysis. Furthermore, 3D microstructural representations were made to describe the complex porous network structure more accurately. Additionally, a thorough examination of the chemical composition and mechanical properties was conducted to ensure compliance with biomedical standards. The results indicate that DPF shows promising potential as a novel PM forming process for producing fully and functionally graded porous titanium alloy, enabling rapid and scalable fabrication of biomedical implants.

522 - A Review of Rare Earth Metallurgical Processing: Material Options and Best Practices in Vacuum Induction Melting
Phil Geers, Blasch Precision Ceramics

The increase in demand for domestic battery production has subsequentially increased the need for processing rare earth metals. Rare earth metals bring novel challenges to traditional metallurgical processing techniques. Due to their high reactivity at molten temperatures, vacuum induction melting must be used to minimize reactions and maintain high purity. Furthermore, due to the high corrosivity of molten rare earth alloys, the ceramic linings used must be corrosion resistant to prevent contamination of the melt, or worse catastrophic failure. Internal cup-brick corrosion testing was used to test various ceramic materials against various rare earth alloys to identify the most robust solution. To ensure proper life of these ceramic linings, best practices for refractory use in VIM melting will be explored considering thermal shock and mechanical stress issues.

523 - Processing
Iver Anderson, FAPMI, Ames National Laboratory (Retired)

524 - Additive Manufacturing Innovations for Permanent Magnets: Enabling Next-Generation Motor Design
Fabrice Bernier, National Research Council Canada

Additive manufacturing (AM) is redefining how permanent magnets are designed and integrated into electric machines. Emerging AM techniques, such as laser powder bed fusion, cold spray, and polymer based extrusion, enable the fabrication of complex magnet geometries and tailored magnetic properties that are difficult to achieve using conventional methods.

Recent studies have demonstrated that optimized laser powder bed fusion can produce highly dense NdFeB magnets with tunable microstructure and magnetic performance, while cold spray additive manufacturing offers mechanically robust magnets with partial in situ alignment of anisotropic powders. Polymer based AM continues to advance through magnetic alignment strategies that enhance remanence and energy product.

These innovations open new opportunities for next generation electric motor designs, including multi layer and hybrid architectures that combine hard and soft magnetic materials for improved torque density, efficiency, and mechanical integrity. However, challenges such as oxidation, cracking, and powder alignment remain key areas for further research and optimization.

This presentation will explore the latest progress, advantages, and limitations of AM techniques for permanent magnets, and how they are enabling new design possibilities for high performance, sustainable electric machines.