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227 - Reducing Variability in Flowability Measurements through Tailored Reference Materials for AM Powders
Jean-Francois Archambault, AP&C Inc., A Colibrium Company

Standardized funnel flow tests (ASTM B213, ISO 4490, MPIF 03) have been widely used for many years across various materials and industries. Although flowability tests are commonly applied for the qualification and control of additive manufacturing (AM) powder feedstock, significant variability in results has been observed, raising concerns about reproducibility and reliability.

Current standards recommend the use of certified reference materials (CRM) for funnel calibration, but these differ substantially in composition, particle size, and morphology from fine AM powders. This paper presents studies demonstrating that CRM powders respond differently to variations in surface roughness, surface chemistry, particle geometry, and environmental conditions such as relative humidity. These observations confirm that flowability is not an intrinsic property of a powder but depends strongly on external factors.

This project aims to assess whether reference materials with properties closer to AM feedstocks could provide more reliable calibration and reduce measurement variability. The objectives include developing stable and homogeneous in-house reference materials, evaluating their performance under varying conditions, and examining the role of correction factors in improving the repeatability and reliability of flowability measurements, but also in defining the performance of the used funnels for fine powders. 

008 - Data-Driven Evaluation of Green Part Homogeneity in Metal Binder Jetting Through In-Situ Image Analysis
Lennart Waalkes, Fraunhofer IAPT

Metal Binder Jetting enables high productivity in sinter-based additive manufacturing, where consistent green part quality after printing is essential for achieving uniform shrinkage and density in the sintered part. A key factor influencing green part quality is the binder deposition, which bonds the metal powder according to layer-specific bitmap data. This study compares the intended binder patterns from the bitmap files with the actual binder deposition recorded by an in-situ optical camera to evaluate green part homogeneity. A computer vision (CV) pipeline is presented that detects binder-covered green part areas per layer, visualizes binder distribution through semantic pixel coloring, and quantifies deviations between recorded and nominal pixel counts for three build jobs. An inhomogeneity index (II) is introduced to normalize local deviations and enable comparison between different builds and process settings (e.g., powder flowability). Statistical variability measures, including the standard deviation and coefficient of variation, are applied to characterize local binder content. A space-time correlation analysis identifies localized accumulations and potential process drifts. Based on these results, a threshold-based classification distinguishes between quality zones (green, yellow, red), experimentally validated using density analyses (µCT, geometric density). It is shown that the developed CV pipeline enables reliable in-situ quality assessment of green part homogeneity, eliminating downstream measurements and thus reducing time and cost.

022 - Utilization of Triboelectric Charging for Surface Chemistry Assessment of Additive Manufacturing Metal Powder
Ali Alagha, McGill University

In powder-based manufacturing processes, surface-related phenomena, such as moisture adsorption, oxidation, and contamination, can significantly alter powder cohesion, flowability, and ultimately part quality. Unfortunately, conventional powder characterization techniques often remain costly, time-consuming, or insufficiently sensitive to subtle surface alterations. Triboelectric charging, arising from charge transfer during particle contact and separation, presents a rapid and highly sensitive alternative for assessing powder surface states. Since this charge transfer is intrinsically affected by particle size, morphology, and particularly surface chemistry, it offers a tool to detect variations of electronic and chemical surface properties. This work investigates the role of surface chemistry in governing the triboelectric response of aluminum alloy powders used in additive manufacturing. By correlating triboelectric charging data with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and work function measurements, we reveal direct links between electronic surface characteristics and charge transfer dynamics. Together, these results establish triboelectric charging as a practical method for characterizing powder surfaces in support of quality control in powder-based manufacturing.

190 - Effect of Canister Thickness on Densification and Microstructural Evolution of PM-HIPed SS 316L Powders
Kameswara Ajjarapu, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

With growing energy demands from data center deployments and the electrification of transportation, heating, and industrial processes, there is a pressing need for power generation using nuclear energy. Such a need demands accelerated development, qualification, demonstration, and deployment of advanced manufacturing methods to enable next-generation nuclear technologies. Powder metallurgical hot isostatic pressing (PM-HIP) is one such advanced manufacturing technique that is currently under consideration for fabricating large-scale reactor pressure vessel components. PM-HIP is a dynamic thermo-mechanical process that strives to fabricate near-net shaped (NNS) parts with the primary objective of achieving fully-dense components for industrial applications, it is quintessential to understand the mechanisms and process variables governing powder densification, can distortion, and microstructural evolution during the HIP cycle. To this effect, SS316L powders encapsulated in canisters of varying thicknesses were subjected to HIP cycles involving intermediate temperatures, pressures and soak times. Post-HIPed samples were characterized at different length scales to elucidate property-structure-processing (PSP) relationships as a function of canister thickness and HIP parameters. The results from this study illustrate the influence of individual process parameters and highlights the significance of canister thickness in PM-HIP, thereby aiding manufacturers and modelers to make informed decisions while designing PM-HIP cycles for large-scale NNS components.

002 - Powder Manufacturing Strategies for Iron-Based Powders in PM-HIP Processing of SMR Structural Components
Changwoo Jeon, EML Co., Ltd.

Powder Metallurgy–Hot Isostatic Pressing (PM-HIP) offers significant advantages for Small Modular Reactor (SMR) structural components such as pressure vessels, enabling the near-net-shape fabrication of large, complex parts with reduced machining and cost benefits. The success of PM-HIP depends critically on the quality of feedstock powders, particularly their chemical cleanliness, morphology, and flowability.
Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA) powders are widely used but are prone to crucible-derived contamination, irregular shapes, and frequent satellite formation. These features reduce flowability, lower apparent density, and compromise densification and microstructural uniformity in HIP compacts. In contrast, the Electrode Induction Gas Atomization (EIGA) process melts electrodes without a crucible under high-vacuum, inert-gas conditions, producing powders with higher cleanliness, improved sphericity, and significantly fewer satellites.
In this study, iron-based powders were manufactured via EIGA and characterized using ICP-OES, LECO analysis, and SEM. The powders consistently exhibited oxygen levels below 80 ppm, excellent roundness, and narrow particle size distributions. PM-HIP trials demonstrated full densification and homogeneous microstructures, confirming the superior suitability of EIGA powders for nuclear-grade applications.
These results highlight the direct correlation between powder morphology and HIP consolidation behavior, establishing EIGA as a more reliable route than VIGA for producing high-quality powders tailored to SMR pressure vessel fabrication.

033 - Active HIP Atmospheres: The Next Lever for HIP Processing 
Anders Magnusson, Quintus Technologies

When using Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) to optimize the reliability of mission-critical components in aerospace, medical, energy, racing, etc., an inert gas pressure medium is typically preferred to avoid introducing unknown variables to the process. Due to this, inert, high-purity argon is the standard gas for transmitting pressure and heat from the system to the processed components.
The most common exception to this rule is for densifying nitride materials such as silicon nitride where nitrogen gas is used to prevent the nitride from dissociating at the high temperatures required for sintering and full densification of the material system.
However, outside these two main HIP atmosphere scenarios, the use of specific atmosphere gases in the HIP system is generally considered experimental.
Several specific applications have historically been explored with varying success, including active carburizing atmosphere for case hardening or for retaining alloy carbon, using partial pressure oxygen to stabilize oxides, or to use a nitrogen atmosphere for pressure assisted nitridation case hardening.
The latter has, due to recent advances in clean-HIP processing, proven to be a promising candidate for the in-situ creation of a wear-resistant surface on, for example, medical implants needed for both increased wear resistance and as diffusion barrier for metal ions leaving the implants provoking metal hypersensitivity.
Building upon these possibilities, this paper takes a further look into the integration of process steps that enhance both productivity and component properties within the HIP cycle.

039 - Development of Ultra-Rapid Cooling Dual-Nozzle Gas Atomization for Fe-Based Amorphous Alloy Powder Production
TaeHoon Kang, EML Co., Ltd.

This study presents a novel technology for producing high-performance iron-based amorphous alloy powders. Conventional single-gas atomization methods have a limited cooling rate of about 10? K/s, often insufficient to achieve a fully amorphous phase. To overcome this, we developed a two-stage, ultra-high-pressure gas atomization process. In this system, a secondary stream of high-pressure gas collides with and further atomizes the initial melt droplets, drastically increasing the cooling rate. As a result, a rate of 10? K/s was achieved, verified by both simulations and experimental validation.
Applying this technology to Fe-based alloys produced fully amorphous microstructures, leading to significantly reduced coercivity and minimized magnetic hysteresis loss. The resulting powders also exhibited increased permeability and superior soft magnetic properties. Furthermore, they showed highly uniform spherical morphology and a narrow particle size distribution, greatly enhancing compatibility and efficiency in subsequent processing.
The dual-nozzle gas atomization technology developed in this study overcomes the limitations of conventional methods, enabling mass production of high-performance Fe-based amorphous alloy powders. This technology is expected to serve as a key materials solution for next-generation electronic and power devices—such as high-frequency switching power supplies, magnetic shielding materials, and high-efficiency inductors—thereby enhancing industrial competitiveness.

181 - Utilizing Powder Characterization Techniques for Optimization  of Coarse Particulate Production Process
Rajiv Tandon, Chemalloy Company, LLC

Quality control of metal powders involves the use of a wide variety of characterization methods consistent with the production method, intended use and mandated customer requirements. Common physical characterization attributes include apparent density, tap density, true density, flowability, particle size distribution, particle shape and morphology, and in some cases surface area and porosity. This study investigated particle characterization methods for shape and flow toward the end goal of implementing an effective quality inspection criterion for producing coarse milled powders in the range of 250µm to 45µm.

182 - Transferred Arc Plasma-Wire Atomization of Refractory Metals
Joseph Tunick Strauss, HJE Company, Inc.

Processing of refractory metals via additive manufacturing enables the production of parts with refractory metal properties in shapes not attainable by any other manufacturing method. For laser and e-beam AM processes, this requires that the refractory metal be available as powder with a spherical morphology. Current production of spherical refractory metal powders includes conventional non-transferred arc plasma atomization, EIGA-type and plasma melted gas atomization, and plasma spheroidization of nascent powders.
Past studies have shown that transferred arc plasma-wire atomization has the potential to process conventional materials (i.e. stainless steels) while operating at a lower specific energy consumption. This paper presents the preliminary trial results of processing W, Mo, and Ta via transferred arc plasma-wire atomization.

129 - Additive Manufacturing and Heat Treatment of Ti-6Al-4V: Microstructure, Mechanical, and Fatigue Performance of Thin-Walled Compliant Components
Eva Prinz, University of Waikato

Additive manufacturing (AM) enables the creation of monolithic metallic components with complex geometries, offering new possibilities for compliant structures, which are single-piece components that achieve motion through elastic deformation rather than mechanical joints. However, metallic designs of this kind remain uncommon because achieving both elasticity and fatigue resistance in thin-walled configurations is challenging. This study focuses on Ti-6Al-4V fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) and post-processed through controlled heat treatment to optimise strength, ductility, and fatigue performance for compliant structural applications. Standard mechanical test specimens were first printed to evaluate the influence of heat treatment on strength and ductility, supported by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to assess microstructural evolution. The optimised condition produced a balanced α–β microstructure, an ultimate tensile strength of 1080 ± 4.4 MPa, and elongation of 9.57 ± 1.07 %, representing a marked improvement over the as-built condition. The same processing route was then applied to a single compliant component printed under identical build parameters. The heat-treated part sustained cyclic loading in the range of 10⁵–10⁶ cycles under representative service conditions, demonstrating stable fatigue performance. These results demonstrate that targeted post-processing can deliver the microstructural integrity and durability required for metallic AM structures, enabling lightweight, long-life components for advanced manufacturing applications.

250 - Integrated Two-Phase Thermal Management in Aluminum Components Using Additive Manufacturing
José Muñiz, Equispheres Inc.

Effective thermal management is increasingly critical as power-dense systems move toward smaller, more integrated architectures. This study investigates an additively manufactured solution using aluminum Laser Powder Bed Fusion to produce components with embedded vapor chambers, combining active liquid cooling with passive two-phase heat transfer. The work employs a highly uniform AlSi10Mg powder with a narrow particle-size distribution, minimal fines, spherical morphology, and low oxygen content, providing stable melting, consistent layer packing, and predictable solidification across the build.
A selective melt strategy was applied to generate a permeable wick with pore characteristics comparable to commercial heat-pipe structures, enabling capillary-driven fluid transport and an evaporation–condensation cycle without additional components. The integrated design improves heat spreading, reduces temperature gradients, and lowers energy demand relative to conventional active cooling systems.
These results demonstrate how powder uniformity, process stability, and design-for-AM approaches can enable functional thermal management architectures not achievable with traditional manufacturing, highlighting the potential of additive manufacturing to deliver high-performance, compact solutions for heat-intensive applications.

127 - Convergence of AM and PM Techniques to Fabricate Large Scale Parts for Nuclear Applications
Soumya Nag, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

In contrast with traditional casting and forging techniques, the PM-HIP manufacturing process involves fabricating pre-formed, complex shape capsules for each large-scale component, filling them with metal powder, HIP and capsule removal.
Manufacturing and further removal of the cans is costly in case of complex shape and large sizes and limits the complexity of the shape. Alo in cases when a HIP can is considered to stay on the surface of the complex shape part as a cladding, the standard approach limits the choices for can materials. 
In this effort a selectively net shaped 900lb can for a hydro impeller prototype was Wire Arc Additively Manufactured (WAAM) on ORNL’s MedUSA platform. The alloy of choice was 410 NiMo stainless steel. This was followed up by extensive prepping and cleaning of the internal sections of the can, He-leak inspection and filling up with >1000 lbs. of A508 alloy powder as the core material. Post leak check and outgassing, the composite part was HIPed via a custom pressure-temperature-time cycle. The result was a successful demonstration part, where for the first time AM and PM technologies were strategically coupled to fabricate a relatively complex composite part weighing >2000lbs, that is ~5 ft diameter and 2 ft tall. 

057 - Towards the Prediction of Melt Pool Geometry in Metal Laser Powder Bed Fusion Processes: Experimental Validation using Open Data
Aurore Leclercq, École de technologie supérieure

Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) enables the production of metallic components with complex geometries, high precision, and competitive costs. However, implementing new materials remains difficult, as more than a hundred interdependent parameters affect the complex multi-physics phenomena transforming loose powder into a solid part. To limit costly experiments, a simplified numerical model was developed to predict melt pool dimensions. It requires only five machine parameters (laser beam radius, wavelength, power, scanning speed, and powder bed temperature) and five material properties (powder bed density and laser absorptivity, melting temperature, thermal conductivity, and specific heat).
The model was validated on more than 500 single-track experiments on medium and high melting point metals from 25 research groups realized on more than 20 LPBF systems using diverse process conditions. Metallographic measurements show that the model accurately predicts melt pool widths for high-melting-point metals (>1300 °C), while its accuracy decreases for aluminum and copper alloys. It is also reasonably accurate for melt pool depths tendencies but loses this accuracy in unstable regimes (lack-of-fusion and keyhole). Overall, the model provides a valuable predictive tool for preliminary parameter selection and alloy implementation in LPBF, significantly reducing the experimental effort usually required for process optimization.

138 - Multiphysics Modeling and Experimental Investigation of Molten Pool Dynamics in Directed Energy Deposition of Ti-6Al-4V
Abul Fazal Arif, King Fahd Univ of Petroleum & Minerals

Achieving geometric stability and metallurgical integrity in Directed Energy Deposition (DED) of Ti-6Al-4V requires precise control of molten pool behavior, which governs bead morphology, porosity formation, and microstructural evolution. This study combines computational multiphysics modeling and experimental validation to analyze the transient molten-pool dynamics during laser-based DED.
A three-dimensional transient CFD model was developed to simulate heat transfer, fluid flow, and free-surface evolution using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method. The model incorporates Marangoni convection, recoil pressure, and evaporation-induced mass loss to predict pool oscillations and solidification profiles under varying laser power and scanning speed. Experimental DED trials were conducted on Ti-6Al-4V substrates with in-situ thermocouple and high-speed imaging for quantitative validation.
Results show that increasing laser power or reducing travel speed enlarges the molten pool and intensifies circulation, while moderate preheating stabilizes pool geometry and reduces cooling rate gradients. The simulated temperature fields and melt-pool dimensions agree well with experimental observations, validating the predictive capability of the model. This integrated computational–experimental framework provides insight into melt-pool thermofluid behavior and supports data-driven optimization of process parameters for defect-free DED of titanium components in aerospace and energy applications.

245 - Simulation of Powder Melting Phenomena in Additive Manufacturing Using Lattice Boltzmann Method
Andrew Allshorn, AT 3D-SQUARED Ltd

Powder melting is a critical step in the metal additive manufacturing (AM) process. In this study, a three-dimensional Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) based model is developed to simulate the melting phenomena of metallic powder. We analyze the shape evolution of varying particle sizes during the melting process. The results show that neck growth dynamics are primarily driven by surface tension and the associated mass transport. This shows that the initial consolidation plays a critical role in the overall consolidation process, offering a mechanical insight into the melting process for additive manufacturing.

210 - Enhanced Cryogenic Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel Using Reused Powder
Chohyeon Lee, Kookmin University

Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) is pivotal in aerospace and medical sectors for producing complex, high-precision parts. However, L-PBF efficiency strongly depends on maximizing the reusability of the residual feedstock. Since repeated high-temperature exposure alters feedstock properties, understanding these changes and their impact on final part performance is crucial.

In this study, we highlight the property evolution of stainless steel 316L powder and the cryogenic (77 K) mechanical properties of additively manufactured samples. The powder was recovered, sieved, and reused up to 15 times without adding fresh powder. Characterization revealed that oxide particles in the reused powder became finer and diffused towards the surface as reuse cycles increased. Microstructural analysis of the final parts confirmed that these nanoscale oxides were uniformly dispersed within the deposited layers.

Tensile testing demonstrated a remarkable increase in yield strength for components derived from reused powder compared to their fresh powder counterparts. This enhancement is attributed to the dispersed nanoscale oxides acting as effective obstacles to dislocation motion in the cryogenic environment.

This study proposes utilizing powder degradation not as a cause for disposal, but as a design variable to induce oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS). This contributes to sustainable additive manufacturing technologies that simultaneously increase material yield and improve component performance.

113 - Effect of Heat Treatment on Properties of 4130 Low Alloyed Steel Processed by Powder Bed Fusion – Laser Beam
Satya Chaitanya Vaddamanu, Chalmers Tekniska Hogskol

In this study, AISI 4130 steel fabricated by laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) in two build orientations (vertical and horizontal to the build platform) was subjected to tempering at 200 °C and 600 °C to assess the influence of heat treatment on its mechanical behaviour. Additionally, a subset of specimens was solution-treated and quenched prior to tempering to produce a quenched-and-tempered microstructure similar to wrought AISI 4130 steel. Mechanical characterisation included tensile and Charpy impact testing, supported by microstructural and fractographic analyses. At 200 °C, the quenched-and-tempered (QT) condition exhibited higher strength than the directly tempered (DT) material (UTS : QT200 - 1692 ± 24 MPa vs. DT200 – 1434 ± 87 MPa) but showed reduced toughness and elongation (Charpy : QT200 - 15 ± 1 J vs. DT200 – 61 ± 4 J). Conversely, at 600 °C, the directly tempered samples displayed greater tensile strength and ductility (UTS: QT600 – 1049 ± 25 MPa vs. DT600 – 1129 ± 11 MPa), though with lower toughness relative to the quenched-and-tempered state (Charpy: QT600 – 92 ± 6 J vs. DT600 – 69 ± 4 J). These findings demonstrate that the mechanical response of PBF-LB 4130 steel can be effectively tailored through appropriate heat treatment routes to meet specific application requirements.

259 - Cold Metal Fusion – Fatigue of Ti6Al4V as-Sintered and HIP
Christian Staudigel, Headmade Materials GmbH

In Cold Metal Fusion (CMF) metal green parts are produced by fusing a metal powder/polymer binder feedstock on polymer laser sintering machines; after solvent debinding and furnace sintering dense metal parts are produced.
This study evaluates the fatigue performance of titanium specimens produced by Cold Metal Fusion (CMF), comparing as?sintered samples with parts subjected to hot isostatic pressing (HIP). Test specimens were manufactured using a CMF workflow, thermally debound and sintered, with a subset receiving HIP to close residual porosity and homogenize microstructure. Fatigue behavior was assessed using high?cycle and low?cycle fatigue testing, while complementary characterization included density measurements, metallography, and fractography to link microstructural features to failure modes.

080 - Comparison of Cemented Carbide Properties Made from Reclaimed WC-Co Powders Obtained by Different Recycling Methods
Anne Vornberger, Fraunhofer IKTS

Circularity plays a central role in cemented carbide production, as it not only mitigates the risk of tungsten supply but also lessens environmental impacts by reusing materials. This study investigates the properties of cemented carbides fabricated from WC-Co powders obtained through two different recycling methods: the zinc reclaim method and the oxidation reduction method, alongside a reference material produced from virgin powders.
The experimental work involved comprehensive measurements of powder properties, the influence of different milling conditions and the resulting compaction curves. Sintered parts were characterized in terms of density, magnetic properties, hardness and fracture toughness. Additionally, thermoanalytical techniques such as thermogravimetry and dilatometry were employed to evaluate sintering behavior.
The results will help assess the potential of recycled materials in cemented carbide applications, contributing to the understanding of sustainable manufacturing practices.

074 - Effect of Milling on Shrinkage Kinetics of WC-Co-Cr Zn-Reclaimed Submicron Powders
José Manuel Sánchez Moreno, CEIT-BRTA

Zn-reclaimed WC–Co–Cr powders are strongly agglomerated, requiring additional milling to achieve homogeneous particle size distribution and adequate compaction behavior. As milling time (i.e. milling energy) increases, both powder specific surface area and oxygen content increase. A limiting milling time has been identified, beyond which the finest and more oxidized powders tend to re-agglomerate. Solid state shrinkage during sintering, fully inhibited in un-milled Zn-reclaimed materials, is strongly activated as milling time increases up to the point at which powder re-agglomeration occurs. Activation energies, derived from shrinkage rate values assuming viscous flow-like behavior, confirm a transition between at least two diffusion-controlled regimes around 980-1000°C. At lower temperatures, the “effective” viscosity of compacts during shrinkage decreases with milling time, except for the case of re-agglomeration. Nevertheless, at elevated temperatures, all materials show similar activation energies, suggesting that the lattice defects induced by milling-which promote solid state diffusion- are progressively annihilated through annealing.

048 - The Influence of Different Amounts of Recycled Zinc Reclaimed Powder on Properties, Microstructure and Performance of a WC-6Co Cemented Carbide for Rock and Concrete Drilling
Susanne Norgren, Sandvik Coromant

Within the framework of the EU Horizon RESQTOOL-project [1], four different cemented carbide powders with 6wt% cobalt and medium WC grainsize, commonly used for percussive drilling in mineralic materials, were manufactured. Different amounts of zinc reclaimed material were added to these powders, ranging from 0%, 34, 67 to 100% (fully recycled powder with only the necessary minor additions for controlling carbon and cobalt contents).
 
Powder properties such as flowability, bulk, and tap powder density were measured. Sintered microstructures, coercivity, and magnetic saturation, porosity after vacuum and sinter-hip were compared. Final dimensions, hardness, and Palmqvist indentation toughness have been characterized and compared between samples.
 
Performance testing included real-world drilling trials of rotary-percussive drill heads in concrete [2], as well as laboratory tribology rock-turning tests [3] on rock drill buttons to replicate wear mechanisms typical of rock drilling. Additional compressive strength tests were conducted to further assess mechanical performance.

Detailed results will be presented, including an environmental assessment of the grades with different amounts of zinc reclaimed material, specifically their CO2-eq footprint, energy consumption, and water utilization.

126 - A High-Density, L-PBF Manufactured Alloy for Conformal Radiation Shielding in Spacecraft Applications
Tyler DuMez, Elmet Technologies

Deep space radiation, including Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) and Solar Particle Events (SPEs), threatens the longevity and reliability of sensitive spacecraft avionics. Conventional lead shielding is limited by its toxicity, complex handling, poor mechanical properties and low melting temperature for orbital environments.

This paper introduces a novel high-density alloy powder engineered for Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) additive manufacturing to produce structurally integrated, conformal radiation shields. The synthesized material achieves a relative density of $99.9%, yielding an absolute density of ? > 11.34 g/cc, which matches or exceeds the mass equivalence of lead.
Characterization confirms exceptional dimensional accuracy and low porosity (<0.1%). Critical manufacturing benefits include the elimination of post-processing heat treatment and excellent machinability. The material exhibits high mechanical and fracture toughness. Thermal analysis confirms high thermal conductivity (k) for efficient heat rejection and a low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) to minimize stress when integrated with electronic boards.

The qualification of this material demonstrates a transformative capability for mass-efficient, geometrically optimized shielding. This L-PBF approach provides a highly simplified and cost-effective pathway for complex electronic enclosures, offering a superior alternative to traditional subtractive manufacturing from billets. This enables critical protection, reduces mission payload mass, and shortens manufacturing lead times for next-generation spacecraft.

174 - Composites Containing Tungsten Particles for Additive Manufacturing of Radiopaque Parts
Mihaela Mihai, National Research Council Canada 

This project focuses on the processing and characterization of poly(ether ketone ketone) (PEKK) - Tungsten particles composites designed for additive manufacturing (AM) of radio-opaque components. Two grades of Tungsten particles were used. Composite granules were compounded to obtain pellets and extruded further in filaments. Parts were 3D printed using two AM technologies: Fused Granulate Fabrication (FGF), that enables direct printing from the composite granules, and Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) that uses the filament, to create small prototypes. Printing the same part with both technologies allowed to compare composites behavior in melt-processing, printability, and performance associated with each manufacturing route. Characterization methods were applied on composites throughout their transformation steps. PEKK/Tungsten composites were evaluated in terms of their chemical integrity after exposure to high-temperature processing during extrusion, FGF and FFF. Analyses were done on pure intrants, composites granules, filaments, and the printed prototypes: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). These techniques helped to assess whether Tungsten undergoes oxidation during thermal processing and to identify any potential catalytic effects on PEKK degradation. Overall, this work provides insight into thermal stability, chemical robustness, and processing behavior of Tungsten-filled composites intended for FFF and FGF printing of parts for medical applications.

072 - Defect Characterisation in Additive Manufacturing of Pure Tungsten – In Process and Post Process Monitoring
Alfred Sidambe, University of Liverpool

In additive manufacturing, in-process monitoring allows real-time defect detection and corrective actions, improving yield and process understanding. However, it is costly and complex due to hardware needs. Post-process monitoring, while accurate and essential for certification, is slow, expensive, and cannot prevent waste if defects are found late. This study compares defect characterisation in pure tungsten produced via Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) and Electron Beam Melting (EBM). LPBF samples were analysed using neutron tomography to assess porosity, cracking, and internal structures. Neutron tomography was chosen over X-ray computed tomography (XCT) due to high density of tungsten, which limits X-ray penetration. Neutron tomography had limited resolution and potential activation risks, but it effectively revealed features like internal threads, highlighting the need for improved resolution. EBM samples were examined using backscattered electron imaging, identifying volumetric porosity and surface morphology. Both methods were effective in assessing surface features and dimensional accuracy. Combining neutron tomography with electron imaging offers a complementary approach for evaluating tungsten, supporting high-performance applications such as fusion energy. A hybrid strategy using in-process monitoring for prevention and post-process techniques for validation is recommended.

601 - A Review of the Status of the Powder Metallurgy Titanium
Zak Fang, FAPMI, University of Utah

Powder metallurgy titanium (PM Ti) is defined as processes and materials that deal with the production of Ti powder, including that of CP-Ti and Ti alloys, the forming and sintering of Ti powder, and the applications of Ti powder and sintered Ti components. Powder metallurgy promises lowering cost of Ti, which is generally cost prohibitive to consumer applications by the traditional melt-&-wrought processes. However, despite tremendous R&D progress, the commercialization of PM Ti remains elusive. This presentation discusses the challenges for the development of PM Ti, emerging technologies with a particular emphasis on the HAMR and HSPT processes developed by the authors in the last decade.  

602 - Advances in Titanium Powder Production for Additive Manufacturing: A 2026 Review with Emphasis on High-Efficiency RF Plasma Technology
Jerome Pollack, Tekna

The rapid expansion of metal additive manufacturing continues to drive demand for high-quality titanium powders exhibiting excellent purity, sphericity, and controlled particle size distributions. Since our 2017 review of spherical powder production technologies, significant progress has been made both in refining established methods and in introducing alternative approaches aimed at improving efficiency, sustainability and powder performance. This updated work provides a comprehensive comparison of the main production routes for Ti-based AM powders, including gas atomization, hydride–dehydride–based routes, and various plasma-assisted processes. Particular emphasis is placed on radio-frequency (RF) plasma technologies, which have demonstrated outstanding capability for producing highly spherical powders with exceptional flowability, high density, and very low contamination levels, thanks to their electrode-less design and extremely stable high-temperature environment.
The review also discusses emerging production concepts that seek to reduce energy consumption, valorize recycled feedstocks, or introduce new powder nucleation mechanisms. These approaches are evaluated against the performance benchmarks established by RF plasma atomization, which remain among the most effective and versatile solutions for producing premium titanium powders at industrial scale.
The presentation provides an updated technology landscape and highlights how advances in plasma-based processes are enabling the next generation of high-performance titanium powders for additive manufacturing.

603 - Analysis of Explosion Characteristics of Fine Titanium Powders
Martin Dopler, Metalpine GmbH

Fine titanium powders used in industrial processes—such as additive manufacturing and press-and-sintering— exhibit distinct explosion characteristics due to their high reactivity and finely divided nature. A detailed understanding of these characteristics is essential for accurate hazard assessment and for the development of effective safety measures.

The most relevant explosion parameters for metal powders include:
- Minimum Explosible Concentration (MEC): the lowest airborne powder concentration capable of sustaining combustion.
- Minimum Oxygen Concentration (MOC): the oxygen level in an inert gas environment below which a dust explosion cannot occur.
- Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT): the minimum temperature required to ignite a dust cloud or a dust layer.
- Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE): the very low energy—often achievable by electrostatic discharge—required to trigger an explosion.
- Explosion Severity: commonly described by the maximum explosion pressure (Pmax) and the deflagration index (Kst).

This presentation explains the measurement devices and test methods used to determine these characteristics, and discusses how key powder properties influence the explosibility of titanium powders:
- Particle size distribution: a higher fraction of particles below 25 μm significantly increases explosion hazard.
- Powder morphology: irregular particle shapes generally intensify explosibility.
- Surface oxide layers: although they may initially inhibit ignition, oxide shells can fracture during combustion, revealing fresh reactive surfaces that accelerate burning.
- Ambient conditions (humidity, temperature): environmental conditions can drastically alter explosion behaviour, rendering standard explosion-protection measures insufficient in some scenarios.

Finally, in-house measurement results are compared with literature data, and deviations are analysed to highlight
the influence of material properties and test conditions on the overall explosion risk of fine titanium powders.

528 - Sales Pipeline Architecture: Building Structure, Accountability, and Success
Paul Hauck, Hauck-Met Solutions

A well-structured sales pipeline is essential for transforming technical strengths into sustainable revenue growth. An effective pipeline delivers clear accountability, enables accurate sales forecasting, supports operational resource and capacity planning, and provides actionable board-level reporting. In this session, we will outline a step-by-step framework designed to achieve these outcomes and drive long-term commercial success.

529 - Navigating DoD/DoW Market Opportunities
John Noteman, Noteman Group LLC

Successfully entering the DoD/DoW market requires navigating complex challenges in technology and supply chain sustainment. We will begin by examining current obstacles facing the sector, then explore specific funding pathways—including their scope and timelines. Additionally, we will cover the required manufacturers’ standards, certifications, and cultural principles, and provide a high-level overview of the necessary executional system requirements.